GREENS TRUST Environmental Health and Pollution Research 3115-9281 1 1 2026 01 01 Assessment of physical and microbial contamination of drinking water in Sanandaj villages 13 20 235898 10.22034/ehpr.2025.549662.1001 EN Roya Rahmatzadeh Moghadam Department of Environmental Health Engineering, ABRAN Consulting Engineers, Tehran, Iran 0009-0001-1165-1795 Fatemeh Tabrizi Water & Wastewater Company Eastern Tehran, Rudehen, Tehran, Iran 0009-0004-8304-0768 Journal Article 2025 10 08 <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Access to safe drinking water is critical for public health, yet rural areas often face contamination challenges. This study aimed to assess the physical and microbial quality of drinking water in 10 villages of Sanandaj city, Iran, to identify contamination risks and inform water management strategies. A stratified random sampling approach was used to collect 400 water samples (100 per quarterly round) from source, storage, and distribution points across wells, springs, and piped systems over 12 months. Samples were analyzed for pH, turbidity, residual chlorine, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) following standard protocols (APHA, 2017). Results revealed pH values within WHO guidelines (6.5–8.5), but 12% of distribution point samples exceeded the turbidity threshold of 5 NTU, and residual chlorine levels were consistently low (0.12–0.22 mg/L). Microbial contamination was widespread, with total coliforms detected in 82% of samples and fecal coliforms in 55%, particularly at distribution points (16.2 and 4.8 MPN/100 mL, respectively). HPC remained below 500 CFU/mL but increased from source to distribution, suggesting biofilm formation. Summer months showed higher turbidity and fecal coliforms due to runoff and temperature effects. The Water Quality Index classified six villages as “poor” (WQI < 70) and four as “fair” (WQI 70–80), with spring-based systems performing better. These findings highlight inadequate disinfection, aging infrastructure, and environmental vulnerabilities as key contamination drivers. Urgent interventions, including enhanced chlorination, source protection, and pipe maintenance, are needed to ensure safe drinking water and reduce health risks in rural Sanandaj.</span> https://www.ehpr.ir/article_235898_e8bc604ccb5761d2de88c2c06ae096d9.pdf